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An exploration of the ethical, legal, and social implications (ELSI) of advanced biotechnologies.
If you could eliminate malaria forever by altering the DNA of every mosquito on Earth, would you do it—even if it meant risking the collapse of an entire ecosystem? This isn't science fiction; it's a choice we face today.
In standard Mendelian genetics, an allele has a chance of being passed to offspring. However, gene drives use CRISPR-Cas9 to ensure a specific trait is inherited by nearly of progeny. This 'super-Mendelian' inheritance allows a trait to sweep through a wild population rapidly. While this could eradicate disease-carrying pests, it raises massive Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI). The primary concern is the Precautionary Principle: once a gene drive is released, it may be impossible to recall. Potential risks include ecological niche disruption, where removing one species allows a more dangerous one to flourish, and 'cross-species transfer,' where the drive jumps to non-target organisms.
1. Scientists engineer a gene drive in Anopheles mosquitoes that makes females sterile. 2. In a controlled environment, the drive spreads from a few individuals to the entire cage population in just a few generations. 3. The population crashes to zero. 4. The ethical question: Is the human life saved worth the potential (and unknown) permanent change to the African savanna's food web?
Quick Check
How does the inheritance probability of a gene drive differ from standard Mendelian inheritance?
Answer
Standard Mendelian inheritance has a 50% chance of passing an allele, whereas a gene drive approaches 100% inheritance.
Can you own a sequence of DNA? This question sits at the heart of biotechnology policy. Proponents of gene patenting argue that patents provide the financial incentive necessary for expensive pharmaceutical research. Without the ability to 'own' a discovery for 20 years, companies might not invest in life-saving tests. Conversely, critics argue that genes are 'products of nature' and should not be privatized. In the landmark 2013 case Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that naturally occurring DNA sequences cannot be patented, but cDNA (synthetic DNA) is patentable because it is not naturally occurring.
1. Myriad Genetics identified the sequence of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which indicate high breast cancer risk. 2. They obtained patents that gave them a monopoly on testing for these mutations. 3. This led to high costs ($3,000+) and prevented patients from getting second opinions from other labs. 4. The court eventually ruled that the sequence itself was a 'discovery' of nature, not an 'invention,' fundamentally changing the biotech landscape.
Quick Check
According to the Myriad Genetics ruling, what is the distinction between patentable and non-patentable DNA?
Answer
Naturally occurring DNA sequences are not patentable, but synthetic DNA (cDNA) created in a lab is patentable.
There is a critical distinction between somatic editing (fixing genes in a patient's non-reproductive cells) and germline editing (altering embryos, sperm, or eggs). Germline changes are heritable, meaning they affect all future generations. International guidelines, such as those from the World Health Organization (WHO), currently maintain a moratorium on clinical germline editing. The ethical 'red line' involves concerns over consent (future generations cannot consent), eugenics (creating 'designer babies' with enhanced traits), and distributive justice (only the wealthy being able to afford genetic upgrades, leading to a biological class divide).
1. In 2018, researcher He Jiankui announced the birth of the world's first CRISPR-edited babies, intended to be resistant to HIV. 2. The scientific community condemned the move as 'premature' and 'irresponsible.' 3. The experiment bypassed standard safety protocols and lacked transparency. 4. This event triggered a global push for a legally binding international treaty to regulate human genome editing, moving beyond mere 'guidelines' to strict 'governance.'
Which principle suggests we should avoid a technology if its ecological consequences are unknown and potentially catastrophic?
Why is cDNA patentable while genomic DNA is not?
Somatic cell gene therapy results in changes that are passed down to the patient's children.
Review Tomorrow
In 24 hours, try to explain the difference between somatic and germline editing to a friend, and why one is more controversial than the other.
Practice Activity
Research a current news story regarding 'CRISPR' and identify if it involves a gene drive, a patent dispute, or human clinical trials.