Navigation
Analyzes the resurgence of nationalism and ethnic violence in the 1990s, focusing on the Balkans and Rwanda.
In 1989, the world celebrated the fall of the Berlin Wall as the 'End of History'—so why did the next decade witness the most brutal ethnic cleansings since World War II?
During the Cold War, the bipolar world order suppressed local ethnic tensions through authoritarian control and ideological alignment. When the Soviet Union collapsed, this 'lid' was removed. In multi-ethnic states like Yugoslavia, the vacuum was filled by ethnic nationalism. Leaders like Slobodan Milošević used historical grievances to consolidate power, transforming neighbors into enemies. This shift from ideological conflict (Capitalism vs. Communism) to identity conflict (Serb vs. Croat) redefined 1990s geopolitics. The number of active conflicts based on ethnicity rose sharply, as groups sought to redraw borders to match their ethnic footprint, a process often involving the forced removal of 'others'.
Quick Check
How did the end of the Cold War change the primary 'driver' of global conflict?
Answer
It shifted from ideological competition between superpowers to identity-based ethnic nationalism within states.
In 1994, Rwanda experienced a genocide where approximately Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed in just days. The UNAMIR mission, led by Roméo Dallaire, was crippled by a weak mandate and a lack of international will. The 'Shadow of Somalia'—a failed US intervention a year prior—made Western powers hesitant to intervene. This resulted in a bystander effect at the geopolitical level, where the international community watched the slaughter via satellite but refused to label it 'genocide' to avoid the legal obligations of the 1948 Genocide Convention.
1. The RTLM radio station began broadcasting 'Hutu Power' propaganda. 2. Tutsis were consistently referred to as 'cockroaches' () to lower the psychological barrier to killing. 3. Ordinary citizens were mobilized into Interahamwe militias, proving that genocide can be a 'bottom-up' process when fueled by state-sponsored hate.
Quick Check
What was the 'Shadow of Somalia' and how did it affect Rwanda?
Answer
It was a previous failed intervention that made Western nations, particularly the US, unwilling to risk troops in another African conflict.
The breakup of Yugoslavia involved a series of wars (1991–2001) characterized by ethnic cleansing—the systematic forced removal of ethnic groups from a territory. The 1995 Srebrenica Massacre, where Muslim men and boys were killed in a UN-designated 'safe area,' proved that passive peacekeeping was insufficient. Eventually, NATO airstrikes forced the warring parties to the table, resulting in the Dayton Accords. This treaty ended the Bosnian war but created a highly decentralized state divided along ethnic lines, essentially 'freezing' the divisions rather than healing them.
1. The treaty divided Bosnia into two entities: The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. 2. It established a tripartite presidency where one Bosniak, one Croat, and one Serb must share power. 3. While it stopped the killing, the result is a political system often paralyzed by ethnic vetoes, showing the difficulty of building a multi-ethnic state after total war.
While Yugoslavia fragmented into seven independent states, other post-Soviet regions experienced frozen conflicts. In places like Nagorno-Karabakh or Transnistria, the lack of a clear international settlement led to decades of unresolved tension. Unlike the Yugoslav model, where international intervention eventually redrew the map, these regions exist in a geopolitical limbo. They possess the attributes of a state (government, military) but lack international recognition, serving as 'buffer zones' for larger powers like Russia to maintain influence in their 'near abroad'.
1. Analyze NATO's 1999 intervention in Kosovo, which bypassed the UN Security Council to stop ethnic cleansing. 2. Compare this to the First Chechen War, where the international community treated the conflict as an 'internal Russian matter.' 3. Evaluate the 'Responsibility to Protect' (R2P) doctrine that emerged from these failures, which posits that sovereignty is conditional on a state's ability to protect its citizens from mass atrocities.
Which factor most contributed to the UN's failure to stop the Srebrenica Massacre?
What was the primary geopolitical shift in the 1990s regarding the nature of conflict?
The Dayton Accords created a centralized, unified government in Bosnia that eliminated ethnic political divisions.
Review Tomorrow
In 24 hours, try to recall the three main reasons why the international community failed to intervene in Rwanda.
Practice Activity
Research a map of the former Yugoslavia from 1990 and compare it to a map from 2010. Identify the seven independent nations that emerged.