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An introduction to how abstract moral theories are applied to real-world dilemmas and contemporary social issues.
If a self-driving car must choose between hitting a pedestrian or swerving into a wall and killing its passenger, who should decide the 'right' answer—and what logic should they use?
To understand applied ethics, we must first see where it sits in the philosophical hierarchy. Meta-ethics is the most abstract layer; it asks about the nature of morality itself (e.g., 'Is morality objective or just a human invention?'). Normative ethics provides the general frameworks or 'rulebooks' for behavior, such as 'Always maximize happiness.' Finally, Applied ethics is the practical application of these theories to specific, often controversial, real-world issues like AI rights, climate change, or medical triage. Think of it as a ladder: Meta-ethics builds the rungs, Normative ethics provides the map, and Applied ethics is the act of climbing.
Quick Check
If you are debating whether it is ever okay to lie to a patient, which branch of ethics are you practicing?
Answer
Applied Ethics.
1. A doctor has five patients needing different organ transplants and one healthy patient with all five organs. 2. A strict Utilitarian might calculate that lives saved is greater than life lost (). 3. Therefore, the 'mathematically' correct choice is to save the five, though this often conflicts with our moral intuition.
In contrast to Utilitarianism, Deontology (from the Greek deon, meaning duty) focuses on rules and motives. Immanuel Kant, the most famous deontologist, argued that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their consequences. He proposed the Categorical Imperative: 'Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.' If you wouldn't want everyone in the world to lie, then you have a strict duty never to lie, even if lying might produce a 'better' outcome in a specific moment.
Quick Check
In Deontology, does a 'good' outcome justify a 'bad' action?
Answer
No, because the action itself must adhere to a universal moral rule regardless of the consequence.
Why do we feel uneasy about the Utilitarian doctor? This is moral intuition—our immediate, 'gut-level' reaction to ethical dilemmas. Philosophers use a process called Reflective Equilibrium to bridge the gap between abstract theory and intuition. We start with our intuitions about specific cases, then look at our general principles. If they clash, we revise them until they reach a state of balance. It is a constant 'back-and-forth' where we refine our rules () based on our reactions () to new data points ().
1. An AI is programmed to be Utilitarian, selecting candidates who will maximize company profit (). 2. The AI discovers that excluding a certain demographic increases due to historical data trends. 3. A Deontologist would argue this violates the 'duty of fairness' and the 'Categorical Imperative' (we cannot universalize discrimination). 4. To reach Reflective Equilibrium, developers must adjust the AI's algorithm to balance profit-seeking with the inherent right to equal opportunity.
Which branch of ethics asks 'What is the nature of goodness itself?'
A person refuses to steal bread to feed a starving family because 'Stealing is always wrong.' Which framework are they using?
Reflective Equilibrium involves changing your moral principles if they consistently clash with your strongest intuitions.
Review Tomorrow
In 24 hours, try to explain the difference between a 'consequence-based' and a 'duty-based' decision to a friend using the self-driving car example.
Practice Activity
Find a recent news story about a technology company (like social media algorithms or AI). Try to argue for and against their latest policy using one Utilitarian argument and one Deontological argument.